Cupric citrate hemipentahydrate
Also known as: Copper citrate hemipentahydrate, Cupric citrate 2.5 hydrate, C12H18Cu4O19, Cupric citrate hemipentahydrate
Overview
Cupric citrate hemipentahydrate is a synthetic copper(II) salt complexed with citrate ions, primarily utilized as a copper source in dietary supplements and animal feed. It is characterized by its low water solubility at neutral pH but high solubility in acidic environments (pH < 3), which facilitates the release of copper ions in the stomach for absorption. The citrate ligand plays a crucial role in stabilizing copper ions, thereby enhancing their bioavailability and catalytic redox activity within biological systems. While extensively researched in animal nutrition for improving growth performance, antioxidant status, and metabolic function, human clinical data on this specific compound are currently limited. It is considered a mineral supplement, providing essential copper for various physiological processes. Research on cupric citrate hemipentahydrate is moderately mature, with strong evidence from animal studies and emerging insights into its biochemical mechanisms, though high-quality human randomized controlled trials are sparse.
Benefits
Cupric citrate hemipentahydrate, or similar copper citrate compounds, has demonstrated significant benefits, particularly in animal models. Primary effects include improved growth performance, enhanced antioxidant enzyme activity, and favorable changes in serum lipid profiles. For instance, meta-analyses in nursery piglets have shown statistically significant improvements in growth metrics when supplemented with dietary copper, with effective doses ranging from 16 to over 200 mg/kg feed. These benefits are attributed to enhanced copper bioavailability, which supports the function of copper-dependent enzymes like cytochrome c oxidase and superoxide dismutase, crucial for energy metabolism and oxidative stress management. While these benefits are well-documented in monogastric animals (e.g., pigs, poultry), human-specific benefits require further investigation through dedicated clinical trials. The effect sizes observed in animal studies indicate a clear positive impact on growth and health parameters, suggesting potential for human application, though direct evidence is currently lacking.
How it works
Cupric citrate hemipentahydrate functions by delivering bioavailable copper(II) ions to the body. Upon ingestion, its high solubility in acidic gastric conditions (pH < 3) facilitates the release of copper ions. These copper ions are then primarily absorbed in the small intestine. Once absorbed, copper is incorporated into various copper-dependent enzymes, acting as a cofactor. Key enzymes include cytochrome c oxidase, essential for energy metabolism; superoxide dismutase, a critical antioxidant enzyme; and lysyl oxidase, involved in connective tissue formation. The citrate ligand not only enhances copper solubility and absorption but also stabilizes the copper ions, contributing to their efficient utilization in metabolic pathways and redox reactions, thereby influencing systemic copper homeostasis.
Side effects
Copper supplementation, including cupric citrate hemipentahydrate, is generally safe when consumed within recommended limits. However, excessive intake can lead to copper toxicity. Common side effects, though not specifically quantified for cupric citrate hemipentahydrate in humans, can include gastrointestinal discomfort, such as nausea or a metallic taste, particularly at higher doses. Rare but severe side effects associated with excessive copper intake include liver damage and other symptoms of copper toxicity. Individuals with specific medical conditions, such as Wilson’s disease or other copper metabolism disorders, should strictly avoid copper supplementation due to the risk of severe adverse effects. Copper can also interact with other minerals and medications; for instance, it can affect the absorption of zinc and iron, and its absorption can be influenced by drugs like penicillamine. Caution is advised for pregnant or lactating women, and children require careful dose adjustments due to their lower body weight and developing systems.
Dosage
For human supplementation, the recommended daily allowance (RDA) for copper is approximately 0.9 mg/day for adults. While specific human dosage guidelines for cupric citrate hemipentahydrate are not well-established due to limited clinical data, supplementation should not exceed the upper tolerable intake level (UL) of 10 mg/day for adults without medical supervision. In animal nutrition, effective doses range from 16 to over 200 mg of copper per kilogram of feed. For optimal absorption, cupric citrate hemipentahydrate is best taken with meals, as its acid solubility is enhanced in the gastric environment. The presence of competing minerals like zinc can inhibit copper absorption, while vitamin C may enhance it. Due to its form-specific properties, oral administration is favored. It is crucial to adhere to established copper intake guidelines to prevent potential toxicity.
FAQs
Is cupric citrate hemipentahydrate safe for human supplementation?
It is likely safe within established copper intake limits (RDA 0.9 mg/day, UL 10 mg/day). However, direct human clinical data on this specific compound are limited, so caution and adherence to general copper guidelines are advised.
How does it compare to copper sulfate?
Cupric citrate hemipentahydrate has lower water solubility but higher acid solubility compared to copper sulfate. This property may lead to better bioavailability and potentially reduced environmental impact, especially in animal feed applications.
When should it be taken?
It is best absorbed when taken with meals. The presence of gastric acid facilitates the release of copper ions from the compound, enhancing its absorption.
Can it cause copper toxicity?
Yes, like any copper supplement, taking cupric citrate hemipentahydrate in excessive amounts beyond the recommended upper intake level (10 mg/day for adults) can lead to copper toxicity, which may cause liver damage.
Research Sources
- https://www.benchchem.com/product/b077223 – This source provides information on cupric citrate, including its chemical properties and potential applications. It suggests that cupric citrate supplementation can improve growth, antioxidant status, and serum lipid metabolites in animals, linking its mechanism to copper ion bioavailability and redox activity. The data is from a controlled animal study, indicating clear methodology but requiring inference for human relevance.
- https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Cupric-citrate-hemipentahydrate – This PubChem entry details the chemical and physical properties of cupric citrate hemipentahydrate. It highlights its acid solubility, which is crucial for facilitating copper absorption in the digestive system. The source also confirms that the citrate ligand stabilizes copper ions, enhancing their biological activity, though it does not provide clinical efficacy data.
- https://ontosight.ai/glossary/term/cupric-citrate-hemipentahydrate-properties--67a0fa9a6c3593987a51b959 – This glossary entry from Ontosight provides further characterization of cupric citrate hemipentahydrate's properties. It reinforces the understanding of its acid solubility and the role of the citrate ligand in enhancing copper bioavailability. Similar to PubChem, this source focuses on chemical attributes rather than clinical outcomes.
- https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10892854/ – This is a meta-analysis of copper supplementation in nursery piglets, published in Vet Sci. The study aggregates data from multiple randomized controlled trials and concludes that copper supplementation, from various sources including organic and inorganic forms, significantly improves growth performance in piglets. It notes that the effect size is dependent on the dose and copper source, with low to moderate heterogeneity among studies, providing robust evidence for animal applications.
